1. Introduction: The Strategic Position of Critical Minerals in the Global Economy and Security
Critical minerals (such as rare earths, lithium, cobalt, nickel, tungsten) are the core resources of modern industry and national security, widely used in new energy, electronics, aerospace, military and emerging technology fields, and play an irreplaceable role in global supply chains and geopolitics. Due to its high melting point (3422°C), high density (19.25 g/cm3) and excellent mechanical properties, tungsten is essential in superalloys, semiconductor manufacturing, military equipment, artificial intelligence hardware and nuclear energy equipment. For example, tungsten alloys are used in aerospace precision components, tungsten electrodes ensure nanoscale precision in chip manufacturing, and tungsten matrix composites perform well in rocket nozzles and high-temperature plasma environments.
The U.S. is highly dependent on China for critical minerals. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 2025, about 27% of tungsten and 70% of rare earths in the United States are imported from China, and the source of raw materials and processing capacity of lithium and cobalt are mainly dependent on overseas. This dependence exposes the vulnerability of the United States in terms of economic resilience and national security under the risk of supply chain disruptions. In 2025, trade tensions between China and the United States will intensify, and China will increase export controls on dual-use items related to rare earths and tungsten, leading to global market volatility. As a result, the United States initiated an import review of critical minerals under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 to assess its national security implications.
This paper analyzes the strategic role of tungsten, the policy background and global impact of the U.S. review from the neutral perspective of China's critical minerals practitioners, supplements the application of emerging technologies and international countermeasures with multilingual materials, and puts forward the path of China-US cooperation in optimizing the industrial chain and the Chinese government's strategic reserves, waste imports and enterprise transformation suggestions, so as to provide reference for the government and enterprises.
2. Definition Of Critical Minerals and Their Global Strategic Importance
2.1 Core Characteristics and Definitions of Critical Minerals
Critical minerals are non-renewable resources that are critical to the economy and national security and where there is a risk of disruption to the supply chain. Its definition is based on the following criteria:
Economic Importance
Critical minerals are core materials for new energy, electronics, aerospace, military, and emerging technologies (e.g., 6G, quantum computing, artificial intelligence hardware). For example, lithium and cobalt are used in electric vehicle batteries, rare earths are used in wind turbine permanent magnets, and tungsten is used in chip manufacturing and military alloys.
Supply Chain Risk
Supply is concentrated in a few countries, such as China, which controls 90% of the world's rare earth processing, 80% of tungsten production and 70% of lithium battery materials, and is vulnerable to geopolitics, trade restrictions or natural disasters.
Irreplaceable
Certain minerals are difficult to replace in specific applications. For example, tungsten's high melting point and density make it irreplaceable in superalloys and quantum computing superconducting materials.
National Security Nexus
Critical minerals directly affect the defense industry, such as rare earths used in radar systems for F-35 fighter jets, tungsten for armor-penetrating missiles and anti-missile systems.
In 2024, the global tungsten production will be about 81,000 tons, and China will account for 81.48%, highlighting the risk of supply chain concentration (USGS, 2025). Demand for emerging technologies is further exacerbating supply pressures, with tungsten for example, which is expected to grow by 15% in high-temperature components for 6G communication base stations and AI hardware.
2.2 Definitions of Critical Minerals by International Organizations and Countries
U.S. Definition of Critical Minerals
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) classifies 50 minerals as critical minerals, emphasizing their importance to the economy and national security and supply risks. In 2022, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) refined its list related to new energy, highlighting lithium, nickel, cobalt, and tungsten.
EU Definition of Critical Minerals
The EU Critical Raw Materials Act 2023 lists 34 critical minerals, with a focus on supporting lithium, rare earths and cobalt needed for the green transition, based on economic importance and supply risk scores, and adding tungsten to meet semiconductor and military needs. The bill will come into force in May 2024.
OECD Definition of Critical Minerals
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines critical minerals as resources with high supply risk, low substitution and high economic impact, emphasizing their role in green and digital transformation. The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook (2024) predicts an eightfold increase in lithium demand by 2040. In its 2023 report, Business Wire forecasts that the global tungsten market will reach 170,800 tons by 2030, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.6% (2022-2030).
Critical Minerals in Japan and Korea
Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and South Korea's Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy have listed tungsten, rare earths, and lithium as strategic minerals, emphasizing their role in the semiconductor and battery supply chains. Japan plans to diversify its tungsten imports by 2030 and reduce its dependence on China. South Korea is stabilizing its supply chain by increasing recycling rates and reducing import dependence, aiming to reduce import dependence from 80% to 50% by 2030.
3. The Strategic Application of Tungsten in the Global Core Industry
3.1 The Technology-Driven Role of Tungsten in the New Energy Industry
Critical minerals are the technological backbone of new energy industries (e.g. electric vehicles, wind power, photovoltaics). Lithium, cobalt, and nickel are used in lithium-ion batteries, providing an energy density of about 300 Wh/kg; Rare earths (such as neodymium and dysprosium) are used in permanent magnets for wind turbines, with an efficiency of more than 95%. Due to its high hardness and corrosion resistance, tungsten is indispensable in the manufacture of wind turbine gears, battery pole pieces and photovoltaic silicon wafers. For example, tungsten alloy tools ensure machining accuracy (±0.01 mm) and tungsten electrodes reduce the loss rate by about 20% in plasma cutting. In addition, the use of tungsten in solid-state battery electrode manufacturing and radiation-resistant coatings for nuclear energy equipment is expected to increase battery life by 10% and enhance nuclear reactor safety.
In 2024, global electric vehicle sales will be about 18 million units, a year-on-year increase of about 35%, driving lithium demand growth by about 30%. Tungsten demand is estimated to account for 10-15% of global consumption due to increased manufacturing of new energy equipment. China accounts for about 70% of global lithium battery production, while the United States only accounts for 10%, and the supply chain is highly concentrated. Export restrictions could lead to an increase in the production cost of electric vehicles by about 10%, affecting the delivery cycle of Tesla, BYD and other companies. By 2030, global electric vehicle sales are expected to reach 36 million units, lithium demand may reach 3.1 million tons (lithium carbonate equivalent), and tungsten demand is expected to increase to 170,800 tons, with supply chain security becoming a bottleneck.
3.2 Tungsten's Contribution to Precision Manufacturing in the Electronics Industry
The electronics industry relies on critical minerals for technological innovation. Rare earths (such as dysprosium, terbium) are used as chip dopants to improve transistor performance; Cobalt and nickel are used in chip packaging and battery management chips. Tungsten is widely used in semiconductor manufacturing due to its high electrical conductivity (5.6×10^6 S/m) and high temperature resistance. The tungsten sputtering target supports chip interconnection, and the tungsten electrode achieves an accuracy of less than 3 nm in the plasma etching of the lithography machine. For example, in TSMC's 5 nm chip production, tungsten electrodes control the etching error to within 0.5 nm. In addition, the demand for tungsten in superconducting circuits for quantum computing, high-temperature antennas for 6G communications, and heat dissipation components for AI hardware is expected to account for 7% of global tungsten consumption, especially in cooling systems for AI training clusters, with a 20% increase in demand.
In 2024, the global semiconductor market will reach $627.6 billion, a year-on-year increase of 19.1%. China supplies about 70% of rare earths for semiconductors and 80% of tungsten. Export restrictions may push up international tungsten prices by about 20%, resulting in a 5-10% increase in chip production costs, affecting the lead times of Intel, Samsung, and SK hynix. The American Semiconductor Association is proposing to invest about $3 billion in a tungsten recycling and processing facility.
3.3 Tungsten in the Aerospace and Military Industry to Ensure High Performance
The aerospace and military industries are demanding on critical minerals. Rare earths are used in permanent magnets for aircraft engines, and nickel and cobalt are used in superalloys to ensure turbine blades operate at 1500°C. Tungsten alloy is used in aircraft balance weights, gyroscopes and rocket nozzles, and can withstand high temperatures of 3000°C; In the military field, tungsten is used in armor-penetrating projectiles and kinetic interceptors of anti-missile systems with a penetration of more than 1000 mm steel plates. Emerging applications include heat-resistant coatings for tungsten matrix composites for hypersonic weapons and radiation shielding for nuclear-powered spacecraft, with demand expected to grow by 10 percent, especially in the hypersonic race between the United States, China and Russia.
The global aerospace and defense market size in 2023 is about $829 billion, and critical minerals account for about 5% of the cost of materials in the military budget. China accounts for 80% of global tungsten production, and export restrictions could push up component costs by 10-15%, affecting production of Boeing, Airbus and F-35. The U.S. Department of Defense may urgently purchase tungsten from Canada and Australia to ease the pressure.
4. Policy Background and Drivers for the U.S. Critical Minerals Review
4.1 Policy Background for the U.S. Critical Minerals Review
The U.S. initiated an import review of critical minerals under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 to assess the national security implications of 50 minerals (e.g., tungsten, rare earths, lithium). The review is carried out by the Ministry of Commerce and requires a report to be submitted within 270 days recommending whether tariffs, quotas or other restrictive measures will be imposed. The White House stressed that the move is aimed at reducing dependence on Chinese supply chains and safeguarding economic and national defense security.
The scrutiny was triggered by trade tensions between China and the United States and restrictions on Chinese exports. In 2025, after the United States imposed indiscriminate tariffs on China, China tightened its management of export licenses for rare earths and tungsten, which could take several weeks, leading to a tight global supply.
4.2 Drivers of U.S. Critical Minerals Review
Supply Chain Security
In 2024, China will supply 70% of the world's rare earths and 80% of tungsten, of which 70% of the world's rare earths and 27% of tungsten will be supplied to the United States. China's restrictions on the export of critical minerals could threaten the U.S. new energy and military industries.
Trade Confrontation
The escalation of the US-China trade war has prompted the US to reshape supply chains through censorship and potential tariffs to stimulate domestic production.
Industrial Revitalization
The U.S. lacks processing capacity, with only one rare earth mine (Mountain Pass, producing 12,000 tonnes per year), and accounts for 2% of global tungsten production. The review aims to attract investment and create jobs.
Geopolitics
China controls 70% of the world's cobalt and some lithium resources through the Belt and Road Initiative. The U.S. seeks to work with Australia, Canada, and the European Union to diversify supply chains.
Energy & Technology Transition
Research institutions expect global lithium demand to increase to 3.1 million tons (LCE) in 2030; Tungsten demand grew by 10-15% due to new energy, 6G and quantum computing. The review ensures the supply of raw materials for the energy and technology transition in the United States.
4.3 U.S. Government's Critical Minerals Supporting Measures
Simplify domestic mining permits, accelerate tungsten and rare earth mining, and target tungsten production of 4,000 tonnes by 2028. Signed cooperation agreements with Australia and Canada, aiming to account for 10% of global tungsten supply by 2030. Invest in the construction of processing facilities and develop tungsten recovery technology, with a recovery rate of 60%.
5. Chinese Practitioners' Perspectives: Challenges and Solutions in the Critical Minerals Supply Chain
5.1 Core Issues Faced by Chinese Practitioners
Export Demand Decreased
Short-term earnings of Chinese companies may fall due to exports, but domestic demand provides a buffer.
Market Competition Faced by Chinese Players
Australia, Canada plans to increase tungsten production, and the European Union and Japan promote diversified procurement, which may weaken China's global tungsten market share.
5.2 China's Policies and Corporate Responses
5.2.1 Strategic Recommendations of the Chinese Government
(1) Short-Term Measures
Optimize The Control Mechanism for Critical Minerals
Optimize export license approvals to 2-4 weeks to enhance transparency and stabilize confidence in the global market. Establish a dynamic monitoring mechanism to track the changes in the supply and demand of key minerals such as tungsten and rare earth in real time to prevent violent price fluctuations.
Establish A Strategic Reserve System in A Timely Manner
Establish a national strategic reserve system for critical minerals, with a target of domestic demand for tungsten, rare earth, lithium and other minerals (about 50,000 tons of tungsten and 100,000 tons of lithium) for 6-12 months to cope with global supply chain fluctuations and geopolitical risks. It is proposed to set up a special fund (about 50 billion yuan) to support the construction of a modern storage base. Explore the establishment of a joint reserve mechanism with Australia, Chile and other resource countries, lock in supply through long-term purchase agreements, and reduce reserve costs.
Timely Release of Tungsten Scrap Imports
Gradually relax import restrictions on tungsten, rare earth and other critical mineral wastes, formulate strict environmental and quality standards, encourage enterprises to invest in recycling facilities, and target a tungsten recycling rate of 70% by 2028. This will reduce dependence on raw ore, and is expected to increase the supply of tungsten by about 10,000 tons per year, saving about 3 billion yuan in mining costs, but it needs to be equipped with environmental supervision and waste sorting technology to avoid pollution risks. It is recommended to cooperate with the European Union and Japan to draw on their waste management experience and develop international recycling standards.
Vigorously Support Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
Tax breaks and low-interest loans have been introduced to encourage small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to participate in the mining, processing and recycling of critical minerals, with the goal of SMEs accounting for 30% of the industry's output value by 2028. Through the construction of industrial parks (such as Jiangxi Ganzhou Tungsten Industrial Park), technical training and equipment subsidies are provided to support small and medium-sized enterprises to develop high value-added products, such as tungsten-based nanomaterials.
(2) Long-Term Development
Increase Industrial Investment
Invest about 100 billion yuan to develop high value-added tungsten products (such as composite materials, nano-tungsten alloys) to support new energy, military industry, 6G technology and intelligent manufacturing. Encourage and support the industry to obtain more natural resource exploitation rights and resource recovery and recycling capabilities, while restricting the export of critical mineral smelting and processing technology, and encouraging domestic fine smelting and processing. Set up a national R&D center, focusing on breakthroughs in low-carbon smelting and circular economy technology.
Actively Global Presence
Through the Belt and Road Initiative, tungsten, molybdenum, lithium, cobalt and rare earth resources in Asia (Indonesian nickel mines), Africa (Congo cobalt mines, Zimbabwe lithium mines), South America (Chile lithium mines, Peruvian copper mines) and other regions will be targeted to enhance resource control.
5.2.2 Transformation Strategies of Chinese Enterprises
Technology Upgrades
Develop high-performance tungsten alloys to meet the needs of 5 nm and more precision chips, solid-state batteries, quantum computing, and smart manufacturing. Focus on breakthroughs in the application of tungsten in intelligent manufacturing, such as high-wear-resistant tungsten alloy parts for industrial robots and high-precision 3D printing tungsten-based materials. Invest in green smelting technology, using plasma smelting and electrochemical purification to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions. Cooperate with Tsinghua University, Chinese Academy of Sciences and other institutions to develop artificial intelligence to optimize the smelting process and improve production efficiency.
Market Diversification
Expand the European Union, ASEAN, Central and South America, and Africa, reduce dependence on the United States, and increase the proportion of non-American markets. By participating in the "Belt and Road" project, it has built joint ventures with enterprises in Indonesia, Brazil and other countries to produce tungsten-based new energy materials and increase exports. Actively participate in the formulation of international supply chain standards, and cooperate with EU and Japanese enterprises to formulate tungsten recycling and green processing standards to enhance global competitiveness.
Green Transition
Actively invest in the construction of tungsten recycling facilities to improve the recycling rate and meet the EU green standards and OECD environmental due diligence requirements. Explore joint ventures with German and Japanese enterprises to introduce advanced waste sorting technology to reduce recycling costs by about 20%.
International R&D Cooperation
Carry out cross-border R&D with internationally advanced technology and resource-based enterprises and research institutions, focusing on tungsten matrix composites and alternative materials. Integrate into the international mining industry chain, learn tungsten processing and recycling technology, and enhance global technological influence.
5.3 Strategic Thinking of China's Critical Minerals Industry
The tungsten industry should adhere to the strategic layout of two-wheel drive of resources and technology to ensure the global leading position of the critical minerals industry
"Going Out" On the Resource Side
Through the Belt and Road Initiative and multilateral cooperation, China has actively acquired the mining rights of tungsten, molybdenum, lithium, cobalt and rare earth resources in Asia (Indonesia, Myanmar), Africa (Congo, Zimbabwe, South Africa), South America (Chile, Peru, Bolivia) and Australia. It also promotes resource recovery and recycling, builds a global waste recycling network, and establishes a waste trading platform.
R&D Investment on the Technology Side
Increase investment in R&D in fine smelting, processing and circular economy technologies, focusing on breakthroughs in artificial intelligence optimization smelting (10% increase in efficiency), low-carbon electrochemical purification (30% reduction in carbon emissions) and tungsten-based nanomaterials (20% increase in strength). Restrict the export of core technologies, protect intellectual property rights, set up a national tungsten technology innovation center, and integrate industry-university-research resources. Based on domestic new energy, electronics, military and intelligent manufacturing applications, we will develop customized tungsten products, such as high-performance solid-state battery electrode materials, and consolidate our leading position in technology.
Risk Management Strategies
Establish a mechanism to respond to price fluctuations of critical minerals, lock in prices through futures markets and long-term supply contracts, and reduce volatility risks. Develop geopolitical risk plans, strengthen supply chain resilience, expand overseas market share, encourage companies to diversify their investments, and reduce their dependence on a single market.
International Cooperation and Discourse
Actively participate in and even lead the formulation of relevant international norms such as the OECD and G20, put forward China-led supply chain transparency and green standards, and enhance the global discourse. Promote multilateral investment frameworks, work with international cooperation to develop resources in Africa and South America, and strengthen diversified supply and demand markets. Enhance the influence of Chinese enterprises in the global supply chain through technology export and standard promotion.
China should enhance its resource security and technological advantages through strategic reserves, liberalization of waste imports, and support for small and medium-sized enterprises, and at the same time participate in global governance in an open and cooperative manner to help build sustainable supply chains.
6. Impact And Future Outlook of the Global Critical Minerals Supply Chain
6.1 Critical Minerals Policy Implications in the United States
The review incentivizes the development of tungsten mines in China, increases production capacity and reserves, and creates new jobs. But tariffs could push up the cost of electric vehicles and chips, pushing up inflation. The military supply chain is at risk of disruption in the short term, and F-35 production may be delayed.
6.2 Ripple Effects in the Global Critical Minerals Supply Chain
China's export restrictions have affected the global new energy and electronics industries, and the costs of companies in Japan, South Korea, and the European Union have increased by 5-10%. The clean energy transition is likely to be delayed by raw material shortages, which will hamper the progress of electric vehicle and wind power projects. Australia and Canada have limited new mineral energy, and it is difficult to make up for the shortfall in the short term. The EU has passed the "Critical Raw Materials Act" to invest in the development of domestic minerals and improve the self-sufficiency rate of tungsten and molybdenum rare earths.
6.3 Future Development Trends of the Critical Minerals Industry
Technological Advancements
The tungsten recovery rate is expected to increase to 70%, and the AI-optimized mining efficiency is about 10%. Tungsten demand for quantum computers, 6G technology and AI hardware is expected to grow by 15%.
Sustainable Development
The European Union requires imported minerals to meet green standards from 2027, the OECD promotes environmental due diligence, and Chinese companies need to invest in low-carbon smelting technology.
7. Conclusion: U.S.-China Cooperation and Challenges in the Critical Minerals Supply Chain
The strategic role of tungsten in the fields of new energy, electronics, aerospace, military, artificial intelligence, and nuclear energy highlights the importance of the U.S. critical minerals review. However, censorship can cause significant harm to the global value chain. Tariffs and restrictions could push up the cost of producing electric vehicles, chips, and military equipment, exacerbating the risk of supply chain disruptions, and rising manufacturing costs in small and medium-sized economies (e.g., Vietnam, India). In addition, censorship-induced trade confrontations could hinder technological innovation, for example, the development of semiconductors and new energy devices may be delayed due to raw material shortages, and the global clean energy transition goal may be delayed. In the long run, unilateral measures may weaken the resilience of global industrial chains and exacerbate geopolitical tensions.
In short, China should optimize its export policies, build strategic reserves, moderately liberalize waste imports, accelerate technological innovation, diversify markets, and lock in resources and increase recycling rates through the Belt and Road Initiative. The United States should balance review and cooperation to avoid industrial chain disruptions. Countries around the world should work together through multilateral platforms such as the OECD to build transparent and sustainable supply chains to support the economic and energy transition.
8. Appendix: Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act 1962
8.1 Section 232 - Safeguards Against Imports That Threaten National Security
(a) The Secretary of Commerce, in consultation with the Secretary of Defense and other appropriate officers of the United States, shall conduct an investigation to determine the effects on the national security of imports of the article which is the subject of a petition filed under this section, or which the Secretary initiates on his own motion.
(b) Upon completion of such investigation, the Secretary shall submit to the President a report on the findings, including a determination as to whether such imports threaten to impair the national security.
(c) Within 90 days after receiving the report, the President shall determine whether to take action to adjust imports of the article, including the imposition of tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions, to prevent such imports from threatening to impair the national security.
(d) The Secretary shall publish in the Federal Register a notice of the investigation and its scope, and provide opportunity for public comment.
(e) In conducting the investigation, the Secretary shall consider the domestic production capacity, the availability of substitutes, and the economic importance of the article to the United States, among other factors.
Source: United States Code, Title 19, Chapter 7, Section 1862.
8.2 《1962年貿易擴展法》第232條款 - 防止進口威脅國家安全的保護措施
(a) 商務部長應與國防部長及其他相關官員協商，調查進口產品對國家安全的影響。
(b) 調查完成后，商務部長向總統提交報告，說明結果及進口是否威脅國家安全。
(c) 總統在收到報告后90天內決定是否調整進口，包括實施關稅、配額或其他限制。
(d) 商務部長在《聯邦公報》發布調查通知及其范圍，提供公眾評論機會。
(e) 調查考慮國內生產能力、替代品可得性及產品對美國經濟的重大性等因素。
來源：美國法典，第19篇，第7章，第1862節。
References
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Schedule
Table of major critical mineral elements
